Language Instruction Improved With Fun and Games

Apr. 16, 2013 — Playing simple games using words and pictures can help people to learn a new language with greater ease, researchers from The University of Nottingham have shown.

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Their study, published by the scientific journal PLOS ONE, revealed that using fun, informal ways of learning not only helped complete novices to acquire a new language but also made more traditional methods of language learning more effective.

PhD student Marie-Josée Bisson of the University's School of Psychology, who led the study along with Drs Walter van Heuven, Kathy Conklin and Richard Tunney, said: "The results of this study have implications not only for language learning and teaching, but also for anyone interested in improving their knowledge of a foreign language.

"They show that informal exposure can play an important role in foreign language word learning. Through informal exposure, learning can occur without intention, in a more effortless manner. Anyone attempting to learn another language would benefit from activities such as simple games using foreign language words and pictures, or foreign language films with subtitles where they can enjoy the activity without focusing on trying to learn the words. The results of this study suggest that these kinds of informal activities can facilitate language learning, even days afterwards."

There are many advantages to learning a foreign language, such as a better understanding of another culture or better employment prospects in an increasingly multilingual society. However, picking up another language can be a difficult process.

Many language learners believe that informal learning -- for example, watching a foreign language film or spending time in another country immersing oneself in the culture -- is helpful for learning the lingo.

This has now been validated by the results of the Nottingham study, which used spoken and written foreign language words along with pictures depicting their meaning to measure foreign vocabulary learning in complete novices.

In the first phase of the study, English speakers who did not know any Welsh, viewed Welsh words on a computer screen and were asked to indicate whether a particular letter appeared in each word. While viewing the word, they also heard the word being spoken and saw a simple picture showing its meaning. Importantly, the pictures and spoken words were irrelevant to their task and they had not been asked to 'learn' the Welsh words.

In the second phase of the study, English speakers were explicitly asked to learn the correct translations of Welsh words. They were presented with pairs of written English words and spoken Welsh words and had to indicate each time whether the English word was the correct translation of the Welsh. Information about whether or not their responses were correct was provided so that they could learn the correct translations. Importantly, half of the Welsh words had been presented in the first phase of the study.

Results indicated that participants performed better on the Welsh words they had previously been exposed to, indicating that during their informal exposure they had started to learn the meaning of the Welsh words.

Better performance in the explicit learning task was found immediately after the informal exposure as well as the next day. The researchers found that participants retained knowledge unintentionally learnt during the informal phase even as much as a week later following further explicit learning of the Welsh words.

Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/04/130416085302.htm

Biology - Brain: Memory

Memory is one of the activities of the human mind, much studied by cognitive psychology. It is the capacity to retain an impression of past experiences. There are multiple types of classifications for memory based on duration, nature and retrieval of perceived items.

The main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory, from an information processing perspective, are:

• Encoding  (processing of received information by acquisition)
• Storage  (building a permanent record of received information as a result of consolidation)
• Retrieval  (calling back the stored information and use it in a suitable way to execute a given task)

A basic and generally accepted classification (depending on the duration of memory retention and the amount of stored information during these stages) identifies three distinct types of memory:

• sensory memory
• short-term memory
• long-term memory

The first stage corresponds approximately to the initial moment that an item is perceived. Some of this information in the sensory area proceeds to the sensory store, which is referred to as short-term memory.

 

Sensory memory is characterized by the duration of memory retention from miliseconds to seconds and short-term memory from seconds to minutes. Once the information is stored, it can be retrieved in a period of time, which ranges from days to years and this type of memory is called long-term memory.

The sensory and short-term memory are bio-electrical types of memory, as they store information in form of electrical signals, whereas the long-term memory is a bio-chemical type of memory.

When we are given a seven digit number, we can remember it only for a few seconds and then forget (short term memory). On the other hand we remember our telephone numbers, since we have stored it in our brain after long periods of consolidation (long term memory).

The definition of working memory, which is erroneously used as a synonym of short-term memory, is based on not only the duration of memory retention but also the way how it is used in daily life activities. For instance, when we are asked to multiply 45 with 4 in our head, we have to perform a series of simple calculations (addition and multiplications) to give the final answer. The process of keeping in mind all this information for a short period of time is called working memory.

Another good example is a chess player, who is playing with multiple opponents at the same time and trying to remember the positions of pieces in all games and using this information to make a good move, when required. Long-term memory can further be classified as declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit).

Explicit memory requires conscious recall, in other words the information must be called back consciously when it is required. If this information is about our own lives (what we ate for breakfast in this morning, our birth date etc.), it is called episodic memory, if it concerns our knowledge about the world (capital of France, presidents of US etc.), then it is called semantic memory.

Implicit memory is not based on the conscious recall of information stored in our brain, but on the habituation or sensitization of learned facts. We perform better in a given task each time we repeat the task, that is we use our implicit memory without necessarily remembering the previous experiences but using the previously learned behaviours unconsciously. For example, classical conditioning is one kind of implicit memory.

 

Another example is memory resulting from motor learning, which depends upon the cerebellum and basal ganglia. 

Link: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/ciencia_brain01.htm

Biology - Brain: Brain Activity During Meditation

The brain is an electrochemical organ - using electromagnetic energy to function. Electrical activity emanating from the brain is displayed in the form of brainwaves.

 

 

There are four categories of these brainwaves. They range from the high amplitude, low frequency delta to the low amplitude, high frequency beta. Men, women and children of all ages experience the same characteristic brainwaves. They are consistent across cultures and country boundaries.

During meditation brain waves alter.

• BETA - 13-30 cycles per second - awaking awareness, extroversion, concentration, logical thinking - active conversation. A debater would be in high beta. A person making a speech, or a teacher, or a talk show host would all be in beta when they are engaged in their work.
   
• ALPHA - 7-13 cycles per second - relaxation times, non-arousal, meditation, hypnosis
   
• THETA - 4-7 cycles per second - day dreaming, dreaming, creativity, meditation, paranormal phenomena, out of body experiences, ESP, shamanic journeys.

A person who is driving on a freeway, and discovers that they can’t recall the last five miles, is often in a theta state - induced by the process of freeway driving. This can also occur in the shower or tub or even while shaving or brushing your hair. It is a state where tasks become so automatic that you can mentally disengage from them. The ideation that can take place during the theta state is often free flow and occurs without censorship or guilt. It is typically a very positive mental state.

• DELTA - 1.5-4 or less cycles per second - deep dreamless sleep

Link: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/ciencia_brain01.htm

Biology - Brain: Brain Waves

When you drop a small stone in water, you see waves. Similarly our heart and our brain have wave patterns. The wave pattern of the heart is measured by ECG (electro cardiograph). The brain waves are measured by EEG (electro encephalograph).

Using the brain wave studies, scientists have discovered that our brain waves are of four types.

The brain waves also have peaks that are similar to the peaks we see in water waves. The number of times the peak appears in one second is called "cycles per second ". For example, the electricity in India is of 50 cycles per second.

• Beta (13 to 25 cycles per second)
  This brain wave indicates that your conscious mind is in control. It indicates a mental state of logical thought, analysis, and action. You are alert and awake talking, speaking, doing, solving problems, etc.
   
• Alpha (8 to 12 cycles per second)
  This brain wave indicates relaxation and meditation. It is a state of relaxed alertness good for inspiration, learning facts fast.
   
• Theta (4 to 8 cycles per second)
  Deep meditation. This is associated with life-like imagination. This is best for suggestibility and inspiration. This brain wave is dominant in children of age 2 to 5.
   
• Delta (0.5 to 4 cycles per second)
  Deep dreamless sleep. Deep relaxation.

Left brain and right brain working together

Usually the left brain and the right brain waves are independent. They reach peaks independent of each other. During meditation and deep relaxation, the left brain waves and the right brain waves happen together.

 

For both, the peaks are reached together. This is called synchronization. Scientists now believe that synchronization makes much greater mind power available. This is associated with learning large amounts of information very quickly as well as with creativity. Brain self-control

Scientists had long believed that brain activity such as brain waves and secretion of brain chemicals were beyond conscious control. But, experiments on Swami Rama of the Himalayas and on biofeedback have now changed that belief. Now it is proven that some people can control their brain waves, etc. 

Link: http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/ciencia_brain01.htm

Musical Ages: How Our Taste in Music Changes Over a Lifetime

Oct. 15, 2013 — The explosion in music consumption over the last century has made 'what you listen to' an important personality construct -- as well as the root of many social and cultural tribes -- and, for many people, their self-perception is closely associated with musical preference. We would perhaps be reluctant to admit that our taste in music alters -- softens even -- as we get older.

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Now, a new study suggests that -- while our engagement with it may decline -- music stays important to us as we get older, but the music we like adapts to the particular 'life challenges' we face at different stages of our lives.

It would seem that, unless you die before you get old, your taste in music will probably change to meet social and psychological needs.

One theory put forward by researchers, based on the study, is that we come to music to experiment with identity and define ourselves, and then use it as a social vehicle to establish our group and find a mate, and later as a more solitary expression of our intellect, status and greater emotional understanding.

Researchers say the study is the first to "comprehensively document" the ways people engage with music "from adolescence to middle age." The study is published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Using data gathered from more than a quarter of a million people over a ten year period, researchers divided musical genres into five broad, "empirically derived" categories they call the MUSIC model -- mellow, unpretentious, sophisticated, intense, contemporary -- and plotted the patterns of preference across age-groups.

These five categories incorporate multiple genres that share common musical and psychological traits -- such as loudness and complexity.

"The project started with a common conception that musical taste does not evolve after young adulthood. Most academic research to date supported this claim, but -- based on other areas of psychological research and our own experiences -- we were not convinced this was the case," said Arielle Bonneville-Roussy from Cambridge's Department of Psychology, who led the study.

The study found that, unsurprisingly, the first great musical age is adolescence -- defined by a short, sharp burst of 'intense' and the start of a steady climb of 'contemporary'. 'Intense' music -- such as punk and metal -- peaks in adolescence and declines in early adulthood, while 'contemporary' music -- such as pop and rap -- begins a rise that plateaus until early middle age.

"Teenage years are often dominated by the need to establish identity, and music is a cheap, effective way to do this," said Dr Jason Rentfrow, senior researcher on the study.

"Adolescents' quest for independence often takes the shape of a juxtaposed stance to the perceived 'status quo', that of parents and the establishment. 'Intense' music, seen as aggressive, tense and characterised by loud, distorted sounds has the rebellious connotations that allow adolescents to stake a claim for the autonomy that is one of this period's key 'life challenges'."

As 'intense' gives way to the rising tide of 'contemporary' and introduction of 'mellow' -- such as electronic and R & B -- in early adulthood, the next musical age emerges. These two "preference dimensions" are considered "romantic, emotionally positive and danceable," write the researchers.

"Once people overcome the need for autonomy, the next 'life challenge' concerns finding love and being loved -- people who appreciate this 'you' that has emerged," said Rentfrow.

"What we took away from the results is that these forms of music reinforce the desire for intimacy and complement settings where people come together with the goal of establishing close relationships -- parties, bars, clubs and so on.

"Whereas the first musical age is about asserting independence, the next appears to be more about gaining acceptance from others."

As we settle down and middle age begins to creep in, the last musical age, as identified by the researchers, is dominated by 'sophisticated' -- such as jazz and classical -- and 'unpretentious' -- such as country, folk and blues.

Researchers write that both these dimensions are seen as "positive and relaxing" -- with 'sophisticated' indicating the complex aesthetic of high culture that could be linked to social status and perceived intellect, while 'unpretentious' echoes sentiments of family, love and loss -- emotionally direct music that speaks to the experiences most will have had by this life stage.

"As we settle into ourselves and acquire more resources to express ourselves -- career, home, family, car -- music remains an extension of this, and at this stage there are aspects of wanting to promote social status, intellect and wealth that play into the increased gravitation towards 'sophisticated' music," said Rentfrow, "as social standing is seen as a key 'life challenge' to be achieved by this point."

"At the same time, for many this life stage is frequently exhausted by work and family, and there is a requirement for relaxing, emotive music for those rare down times that reflects the other major 'life challenge' of this stage -- that of nurturing a family and maintaining long-term relationships, perhaps the hardest of all."

Adds Bonneville-Roussy: "Due to our very large sample size, gathered from online forms and social media channels, we were able to find very robust age trends in musical taste. I find it fascinating to see how seemingly trivial behaviour such as music listening relates to so many psychological aspects, such as personality and age."

Link: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/10/131015123654.htm