Friday, January 24, 2014

Dieta, Biología y Cultura (laguia2000)


Estudios científicos muestran que la biología y la cultura interactúan y crean hábitos alimenticios, porque la especie humana se rige por influencias culturales a la hora de elegir alimentos y luego crea un hábito no necesariamente saludable.

Sin embargo, también participan en esta elección nutricional, factores genéticos de índole evolutivos debido a los cambios que se producen de generación en generación.

La evolución de la dieta se puede explicar a partir de la teoría evolucionista de Darwin.

Se acepta que el hombre primitivo evolucionó en forma gradual en África, pasando a ser de recolector a cazador, debido a la necesidad de adaptarse al medio. Sin embargo, esta postura se ha ido modificando con el tiempo y desde los años setenta se cree que la evolución biológica y cultural son dos fenómenos que se interrelacionan en forma compleja.

Los fenómenos evolutivos que surgen de la interacción entre factores genéticos y culturales, los estudia la “coevolución genético-cultural”, una especialidad de la genética de poblaciones.

Modelos matemáticos de esta ciencia muestran que la cultura puede generar fuertes presiones selectivas y crear nuevos mecanismos que se relacionan a veces con la cooperación humana. Las preferencias culturales por determinados alimentos pueden producir cambios genéticos que favorecen al mismo tiempo un mayor aprovechamiento de los recursos.

Por ejemplo, la tolerancia humana a la lactosa suele ser mayor en países que tienen alta producción lechera; y la era agrícola ganadera incrementó el consumo de carbohidratos, provocando la consecuente modificación genética.

La postura erguida del hombre, el desarrollo de las relaciones sociales, la fabricación de utensilios y herramientas, el aumento de la talla corporal y los cambios en la alimentación, fueron un conjunto de factores de adaptación que favoreció la supervivencia de la especie.

Los imperativos biológicos modelan la cultura y las condiciones biológicas cambian en función a la cultura. La información cultural se transmite por medio del aprendizaje y es un factor importante en la dieta.

La creación de útiles filosos contribuyó al cambio en la alimentación, permitiendo al hombre penetrar el cuero de los animales y romper huesos para acceder a una mayor cantidad de tejidos.

Mientras los monos continuaban con su alimentación vegetariana los homínidos ampliaron su dieta y esta diferencia parece haber sido crucial en la evolución humana.

Los yacimientos arqueológicos revelan información valiosa sobre la fauna, los útiles de que disponía el hombre primitivo y los territorios que ocupaban, todos factores que se vinculan con la dieta.

Los cambios en la alimentación aumentaron el tamaño y modificaron el cuerpo del hombre, condiciones que le permiten tolerar mayor cantidad y calidad de alimentos y promover una mayor adaptación a climas más fríos.

La dieta también se relaciona con el aumento del tamaño cerebral, principalmente la del homo erectus, que contenía más carne que la de otros homínidos, permitiéndole mantener los ácidos grasos necesarios para sustentar la evolución de su cerebro.

El cambio cultural correspondiente a la producción de leche, además de elevar la tolerancia humana a la lactosa, dio como resultado rebaños con mayor tamaño y variedad genética que producen más leche.

Pero la gran expansión de nuestra especie por todos los continentes coincide con el control del fuego.

En el futuro, el riesgo de sufrir diabetes Tipo 2 parece ser el próximo objetivo de la selección natural humana; y es probable que más adelante, nuevos estudios revelen que la comida rápida ha producido un cambio genético, ya que su consumo se ha generalizado en casi todo el mundo.

Fuente: Investigación Científica, Olli Arjamaa y Timo Vuorisalo.

4 ejercicios abdominales y algunos consejos para tonificar tu abdomen (vidaysalud.com)


El tener un abdomen plano no se logra de la noche a la mañana. Pero tampoco es tan difícil como crees. Es sólo cuestión de saber qué ejercicios abdominales hacer y dedicarle algunos minutos al día. Ensáyalos aunque sea una vez para romper el hielo. Te gustarán.

Como sucede con tantas cosas en la vida, con los ejercicios abdominales lo que importa es la calidad y no la cantidad. No tienes que matarte haciendo 50 ejercicios abdominales seguidos. Intenta hacer menos, pero despacio y concentrándote en los músculos que estás trabajando. Un ejercicio efectivo no es justamente el que más duele. Al contrario, tan pronto te empiece a doler debes parar, eso te dará para hacer máximo 15 o 20 repeticiones por set. Y puedes hacer entre dos o tres sets de cada uno de estos ejercicio.
  1. Abdominales básicos. Acuéstate de espalda en el piso, con las rodillas dobladas y la planta de tus pies totalmente sobre el suelo. Apoya tu cabeza sobre los dedos de tus manos y siempre con los codos abiertos. Mientras contraes tus abdominales, empieza a levantar la cabeza lentamente, primero acercando el mentón hacia el pecho, luego el cuello, los hombros y así hasta despegar del suelo la parte superior de la espalda.
  2. Abdominales invertidos. Acuéstate de espalda en el piso con las manos a los lados, las rodillas dobladas y los pies ligeramente levantados del suelo. Concéntrate en contraer tus abdominales para levantar tu cadera y acercar tus rodillas hasta tu pecho.
  3. Bicicleta. Acuéstate de espalda en el piso, levanta tus piernas y dobla tus rodillas formando un ángulo de 90 grados. Empieza por extender la pierna derecha y, con las manos detrás de la cabeza, intenta unir el codo derecho con la rodilla izquierda. Este movimiento lo debes hacer sin que tu brazo se cruce sobre tu cabeza, sino concentrando toda la fuerza en tu abdomen para que él te ayude a girar el tronco hacia la izquierda. Ahora cambia de lado sin dejar caer la espalda, extendiendo la pierna izquierda y uniendo el codo izquierdo con la rodilla derecha.
  4. Conteniendo el estómago. Ubícate “en cuatro”, sobre pies y rodillas mirando hacia el suelo. Deja que tu estómago salga mientras tomas aire y luego lo sueltas. Tan pronto saques el aire mete tu estómago suavemente y contenlo 10 segundos, sin doblar tu espalda en ningún momento. Descansa y repite hasta 10 veces.
Pilates, Yoga y la Pelota Suiza son también muy buenos métodos de hacer ejercicio para tonificar tus abdominales. Inscríbete en una clase de alguno de ellos o cómprate un video para hacerlo en casa. Arma una pequeña rutina de 30 minutos para hacerlos dos o tres veces a la semana, y notarás la diferencia.

Recuerda que solamente con ejercicio no lograrás tonificar tu abdomen, si aún le sobra grasa. Los ejercicios abdominales no te harán perder grasa del abdomen exclusivamente. Complementa tus ejercicios con una dieta balanceada y ejercicios aeróbicos que te ayuden a perder calorías. Así podrás ver más fácilmente los resultados de tu esfuerzo.

FUENTE: http://www.vidaysalud.com/daily/ejercicio/4-ejercicios-abdominales-y-algunos-consejos-para-tonificar-tu-abdomen/

Tuesday, January 21, 2014

Rock of Ages: Taste in music DOES change over a lifetime - and even punk-loving teens will listen to classical music in middle age

  • British scientists found tastes shift in line with 'key life challenges' 
  • Teenagers like 'intense' music, while those in early adulthood opt for 'contemporary' and 'mellow' choices as they search for close relationships
  • The study by the University of Cambridge, used data from more than a quarter of a million people over a 10 year period
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the first great musical age is adolescence
The study found that, unsurprisingly, the first great musical age is adolescence, which is defined by a short, sharp burst of 'intense' music

Plenty of teenagers might claim they will love One Direction forever or will never want to borrow a classical CD from their parents, but British scientists have found certain music genres are associated with five key stages in a human life.

Music stays important to people as they age but what they listen to is chosen to suit particular 'life challenges' they face and meet social and psychological needs, the researchers said.

They confirmed what may people have thought for a while - teenagers have little taste in music and what we listen to gets more boring as we grow older.

Researchers at Cambridge University have identified five broad categories of musical taste during a person's life.

They believe humans use music to experiment with identity and define themselves and then as a social vehicle to establish a group and find a mate, before using it to express their intellect, status and greater emotional understanding.

The study suggests that unless people take the Who's advice and die before they get old, their taste in music will probably change to meet their social and psychological needs.

Researchers said the study, published in the journal of Personality and Social Psychology, is the first to 'comprehensively document' the ways people engage with music 'from adolescence to middle age'.

Using data gathered from more than a quarter of a million people over a ten year period, researchers divided musical genres into five broad categories they call the MUSIC model - mellow, unpretentious, sophisticated, intense, contemporary - and plotted the patterns of preference across age-groups. 
 
¿Intense¿ music, such as punk and metal peaks in adolescence and declines in early adulthood

'Intense' music, such as punk and metal peaks in adolescence and declines in early adulthood, while 'contemporary' music such as pop begins a rise that plateaus until early middle age. Dr Rentfrow said teenage years are often dominated by the need to establish identity and music is a cheap way to do this

THE FIVE STAGES

  • The first is the 'intense' period when punk or metal dominates adolescence as teens explore their own identity.
  • After that listeners gravitate towards 'contemporary' electronic and R&B music which reflects the autonomy of early adulthood.
  • That phase of 'romantic, emotionally positive and danceable' music gives way to a 'Mellow' period as listeners search for love and start families.
  • Following that is the 'sophisticated' age of jazz and classical pieces.
  • And finally as we mature and lose the need for peer approval we become more inclined to 'unpretentious' music such as country and folk.
These five categories incorporate multiple genres that share common musical and psychological traits - such as loudness and complexity.  
 
The study found that, unsurprisingly, the first great musical age is adolescence, which is defined by a short, sharp burst of ‘intense’ and the start of a steady climb of ‘contemporary’. 

‘Intense’ music, such as punk and metal peaks in adolescence and declines in early adulthood, while ‘contemporary’ music such as pop and rap begins a rise that plateaus until early middle age.  
 
Dr Jason Rentfrow, senior researcher on the study, said: 'Teenage years are often dominated by the need to establish identity, and music is a cheap, effective way to do this.' 

‘"Intense’ music, seen as aggressive, tense and characterised by loud, distorted sounds has the rebellious connotations that allow adolescents to stake a claim for the autonomy that is one of this period’s key life challenges.'

As 'intense' gives way to the rising tide of 'contemporary'
As 'intense' gives way to the rising tide of 'contemporary' and 'mellow', like R&B, in early adulthood, the next musical age emerges. Dr Rentfrow said 'these forms of music reinforce the desire for intimacy and complement settings where people come together with the goal of establishing close relationships'

As ‘intense’ gives way to the rising tide of ‘contemporary’ and introduction of ‘mellow’, such as electronic and R&B, in early adulthood, the next musical age emerges. 

These two 'preference dimensions' are considered 'romantic, emotionally positive and danceable,' the researchers wrote.    
 
Dr Rentfrow said: 'Once people overcome the need for autonomy, the next life challenge concerns finding love and being loved – people who appreciate this "you" that has emerged.'
 
'What we took away from the results is that these forms of music reinforce the desire for intimacy and complement settings where people come together with the goal of establishing close relationships – parties, bars, clubs and so on. 
 
'Whereas the first musical age is about asserting independence, the next appears to be more about gaining acceptance from others.'
 
As people settle down and middle age begins to creep in, the last musical age, as identified by the researchers, is dominated by ‘sophisticated’ music, such as jazz and classical and ‘unpretentious’ tunes, such as country, folk and blues.
 
the last musical age, as identified by the researchers, is dominated by 'sophisticated' music
As people settle down and middle age begins to creep in, the last musical age, as identified by the researchers, is dominated by 'sophisticated' music, such as jazz and classical and 'unpretentious' tunes, such as country, folk and blues

The researchers said both these dimensions are seen as 'positive and relaxing' with ‘sophisticated’ music indicating the complex aesthetic of high culture that could be linked to social status and perceived intellect, while ‘unpretentious’ echoes sentiments of family, love and loss – emotionally direct music that speaks to the experiences most will have had by this life stage.
 
Dr Rentfrow said: 'As we settle into ourselves and acquire more resources to express ourselves – career, home, family, car – music remains an extension of this and at this stage there are aspects of wanting to promote social status, intellect and wealth that play into the increased gravitation towards ‘sophisticated’ music, as social standing is seen as a key life challenge to be achieved by this point.
 
'At the same time, for many this life stage is frequently exhausted by work and family, and there is a requirement for relaxing, emotive music for those rare down times that reflects the other major life challenge of this stage - that of nurturing a family and maintaining long-term relationships - perhaps the hardest of all.'
 
Arielle Bonneville-Roussy from Cambridge’s Department of Psychology, who led the study, said: 'Due to our very large sample size, gathered from online forms and social media channels, we were able to find very robust age trends in musical taste. 

'I find it fascinating to see how seemingly trivial behaviour such as music listening relates to so many psychological aspects, such as personality and age.'
 
there is a requirement for relaxing, emotive music for down times
The study found that for many middle-aged people, frequently exhausted by work and family, there is a requirement for relaxing, emotive music for down times that reflect the other major life challenge of this stage - that of nurturing a family and maintaining long-term relationships

Sunday, January 19, 2014

I Learned to Speak Four Languages in a Few Years: Here's How (lifehacker.com)


Lifehacker reader Gabriel Wyner was tasked with learning four languages in the past few years for his career as an opera singer, and in the process landed on "a pretty damn good method for language learning that you can do in limited amounts of spare time." Here's the four-step method that you can use, too (and you don't have to invest hundreds in a language course like Rosetta Stone).
 
This is the method I've used to learn four languages (Italian, German, French and now Russian); it's the method that got me to C1 fluency in French in about 5 months, and I'm currently using it with Russian (and plan on reaching C1 equivalent fluency by September).
I go in four stages. The stages will take different amounts of time for different languages and depend on how much time you have available per day, naturally. The US Foreign Service Institute makes estimates for language difficulties for native English speakers, and they seem to be spot on in terms of comparative difficulty—Russian seems to be taking twice as long as French did for me, and they estimate languages like Chinese to take twice as long as Russian. That being said, let's say we're talking about a language like French, and you have 30-60 minutes a day to spend on it, I've included estimates for how long each stage might take.

Stage 1: Learn the correct pronunciation of the language.

Time: 1-2 weeks (or longer for languages that have a new alphabet that will take some time to get comfortable with)

Starting with pronunciation first does a few things—because I'm first and foremost learning how to hear that language's sounds, my listening comprehension gets an immediate boost before I even start traditional language learning. Once I start vocabulary training, I retain it better because I'm familiar with how words should sound and how they should be spelled. (Correct spellings in French, for example, are much easier to remember when there's a connection between the spelling and the sound), and once I finally start speaking to native speakers, they don't switch to English for me or dumb down their language, which is awesome sauce.

If you're learning a language with a different alphabet, this is where you learn the phonetic alphabet(s) (Kana, for Japanese or Pinyin for Chinese, for example).

How do you learn pronunciation?

There are a few routes here, and a lot of excellent online and in-print resources (Pronunciation guides with CDs or mp3s are usually very good). Personally, I think it's worth the (short) time to learn the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) for the English language first (Wikipedia / some video tutorials I've been producing), and then see what sounds are different in your target language. In the process of learning IPA, you learn the components of each vowel and consonant and you'll really understand what makes a French word sound French, and a Chinese word Chinese.

Stage 2: Vocabulary and grammar acquisition, no English allowed.

Time: About 3 months. This stage involves two different time commitments: building your vocabulary and grammar flashcards and reviewing the deck.

This stage takes advantage of a few valuable tricks:

First, I'm using Anki, a wonderful, free flashcard program that runs on smartphones and every computer platform. Anki is a spaced repetition system, which schedules reviews of flash cards based upon how often you've successfully remembered a card. In the end, it helps you put a huge number of facts in to your long-term memory very rapidly—you can typically learn 20-30 new words a day in about 30 minutes on your smartphone.

Second, I use a modified version of Middlebury College's famous language pledge—No English allowed! I use pictures and whatever limited vocabulary I have to build the rest of my vocabulary. By skipping the English, I'm practicing thinking in the language directly, and not translating every time I try to think of a word. This results in quicker learning and better vocabulary retention over time, and a much faster transition to comfortable fluency in the language.

Third, I'm using frequency lists to guide my vocabulary acquisition. These lists show the most common words in a given language, and learning those words first will be the best use of your time—after 1000 words, you'll know 70% of the words in any average text, and 2,000 words provides you with 80% text coverage. It's not enough for fluency, but it's a pretty phenomenal base!

Since I'm starting out with zero words, I have to go in a few steps:
  • To save time, I start with a basic list of 400 words that are common in English and extremely easy to picture - things like man and woman, dog and cat, to run and to cook, etc. I find good (!) translations of these and put them in my Anki deck without any English - just the word and its picture.
  • After those, I grab a frequency list and mark off any remaining words I can portray with pictures alone (basic nouns and verbs), and put them in my Anki deck. Once I have some words to play with, I start putting them together. I use Google translate (Exception to no English rule - just be careful there's no English in your Anki deck) and a grammar book to start making sentences, then get everything double-checked at lang-8.com before putting them into my Anki deck. Fill-in-the-blank flashcards let you drill your grammar and connecting words, and you can usually just type these straight into Anki from your grammar book.
  • As vocab and grammar grow, I eventually move to monolingual (French - French, for example) dictionaries and writing my own definitions for more abstract words (again doublechecked at lang-8.com). This builds on itself; the more vocab and grammar you get, the more vocab and grammar concepts you can describe in the target language. Eventually you can cover all the words in a 2000 word frequency list as a foundation and add any specific vocab you need for your own interests.
  • Most people's eventual goals (by, say, the end of stage 4) will be ~2000-6000 words, plus around 1000 grammar cards, depending on how far you want to go (Here, we're talking about words that are in your Anki deck - you'll pick up a bigger passive vocabulary from reading). As a very rough estimate, if you end up with ~5000 cards, it will take you a bit less than 6 months to learn them with Anki if you're doing 30 minutes a day (half that if you do 60 minutes/day).

Stage 3: Listening, writing and reading work

Time: This stage overlaps quite a bit with stage 2 and 4. Once you're comfortable reading or writing anything, usually a month or two into stage 2, you can start stage 3. Stages 3 and 4, the immersion part, combined took me about 7 fairly insane weeks where I spent any free time reading, watching TV, and writing.

Once I have a decent vocabulary and familiarity with grammar, I start writing essays, watching TV shows and reading books, and talking (at least to myself!) about the stuff I see and do. Every writing correction gets added to the Anki deck, which continues to build my vocab and grammar.

You should read and watch anything that's enjoyable to you—it's more about quantity than anything; I'm a big fan of the Harry Potter series in translation, and dubbed versions of the TV series 24 are insanely addictive and not that difficult to follow after the first few hours—you can literally spend all day in front of the TV, and it's actually productive! As for writing, you can (and should) write whatever you want—journals, opinions, what you did today, your grocery list, anything. The goal is to get something down on a page that you can submit to lang-8.com, get a correction, and put that correction into your Anki deck.

Stage 4: Speech

At the point where I can more or less talk (haltingly, but without too many grammar or vocab holes) and write about most familiar things, I find some place to immerse in the language and speak all the time (literally). No English allowed or else you won't learn the skill you're trying to learn, which is adapting to holes in your grammar or vocabulary by going around them rapidly and automatically without having to think about it). I prefer Middlebury college, but if you don't have 7 solid weeks where you can cut ties to the rest of the world and just speak the language, you'll still get a lot from even a couple of weeks in your target country as long as you stick to your target language and spend as much time as you can talking. There are internet exchanges and Skype videochats that will absolutely help you practice speaking, and if you surround yourself with foreign language TV and movies, read books and videochat with people frequently, you can sort of simulate the immersion experience on your own.

The more intense you can make it, the faster your brain will adapt and learn how to put all the info you learned in stages 1-3 together quickly enough to turn into comfortable, fluent speech.

Language Instruction Improved With Fun and Games


Apr. 16, 2013 — Playing simple games using words and pictures can help people to learn a new language with greater ease, researchers from The University of Nottingham have shown.



Their study, published by the scientific journal PLOS ONE, revealed that using fun, informal ways of learning not only helped complete novices to acquire a new language but also made more traditional methods of language learning more effective.

PhD student Marie-Josée Bisson of the University's School of Psychology, who led the study along with Drs Walter van Heuven, Kathy Conklin and Richard Tunney, said: "The results of this study have implications not only for language learning and teaching, but also for anyone interested in improving their knowledge of a foreign language.

"They show that informal exposure can play an important role in foreign language word learning. Through informal exposure, learning can occur without intention, in a more effortless manner. Anyone attempting to learn another language would benefit from activities such as simple games using foreign language words and pictures, or foreign language films with subtitles where they can enjoy the activity without focusing on trying to learn the words. The results of this study suggest that these kinds of informal activities can facilitate language learning, even days afterwards."

There are many advantages to learning a foreign language, such as a better understanding of another culture or better employment prospects in an increasingly multilingual society. However, picking up another language can be a difficult process.

Many language learners believe that informal learning -- for example, watching a foreign language film or spending time in another country immersing oneself in the culture -- is helpful for learning the lingo.

This has now been validated by the results of the Nottingham study, which used spoken and written foreign language words along with pictures depicting their meaning to measure foreign vocabulary learning in complete novices.

In the first phase of the study, English speakers who did not know any Welsh, viewed Welsh words on a computer screen and were asked to indicate whether a particular letter appeared in each word. While viewing the word, they also heard the word being spoken and saw a simple picture showing its meaning. Importantly, the pictures and spoken words were irrelevant to their task and they had not been asked to 'learn' the Welsh words.

In the second phase of the study, English speakers were explicitly asked to learn the correct translations of Welsh words. They were presented with pairs of written English words and spoken Welsh words and had to indicate each time whether the English word was the correct translation of the Welsh. Information about whether or not their responses were correct was provided so that they could learn the correct translations. Importantly, half of the Welsh words had been presented in the first phase of the study.

Results indicated that participants performed better on the Welsh words they had previously been exposed to, indicating that during their informal exposure they had started to learn the meaning of the Welsh words.

Better performance in the explicit learning task was found immediately after the informal exposure as well as the next day. The researchers found that participants retained knowledge unintentionally learnt during the informal phase even as much as a week later following further explicit learning of the Welsh words.

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